The associations between roots and fungi are called mycorrhizae. Plant roots are hospitable sites for the fungi to anchor and produce their threads hyphae. The roots provide essential nutrients for the growth of the fungi.
In return, the large mass of fungal hyphae acts as a virtual root system for the plants, increasing the amount of water and nutrients that the plant may obtain from the surrounding soil. A plant that forms an association benefiting both the fungus and the plant is a "host.
Two general terms are used to describe virtually all mycorrhizae:. Mycorrhizae are essential in areas where soils are deficient in water and certain nutrients - conditions that are found in the desert. Even when there is an ample amount of a nutrient, it may not be readily accessible to the plant. A dramatically larger root system or mycorrhizae permits the plant to obtain additional moisture and nutrients.
This is particularly important in uptake of phosphorus, one of the major nutrients required by plants. When mycorrhizae are present, plants are less susceptible to water stress. Not only do the fungal threads help to bring water and nutrition into the plant, but they also can store them for use when rainfall is sparse and temperatures are high. When organic matter compost is added to improve a soil, mycorrhizae are important in making its nutrients available.
The residual organic matter and the hyphae improve the structure of the soil. Recent research indicates that the fungi even help break down rock, increasing availability of the essential nutrients within, such as potassium, calcium, zinc and magnesium. Disease resistance Mycorrhizae also help the plant resist infection by other fungi and even bacteria.
This may be because the plant, being better nourished, is healthier and has better resistance to the invader. It may also be that the large physical presence of one fungus impedes infection by others. Another possibility is that either the plant or the fungus produces compounds that prevent infection by pathogens. Interaction with other soil microbes — a cycle of benefit. Inorganic polyPare linear polymers in which P i residues are linked by energy-rich phospho-anhydride bonds.
Two types of polyP can be distinguished in mycorrhizal fungi: short chain polyP with a length of up to 20 P i residues and long chained polyP with more than 20 P i residues. The average length of short chained polyP in AM fungi has been estimated as P i [ 78 , 79 ], and of long chained polyP as to P i residues [ 80 , 81 ]. In the mycorrhizal symbiosis, polyP are involved in:. P homeostasis in the hyphaeand maintenance of low intracellular P i levels. Low P i levels in fungal hyphae increase the efficiency with which P can be absorbed and reduce the osmotic stress at high internal P concentrations [ 79 , 84 ];.
Based on the high flux rate of P through the hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi between 2 x and 2 x mol P cm-2 s-1 have been described for AM fungi. Regulation of P transport. Long-chain polyP are mainly involved in long term storage of P, whereas short-chain polyP are correlated to the P transport in the symbiosis [ 93 ].
Cation homeostasis. PolyP are polyanions and their negative charge is balanced by cations. Many ecosystems in which the nitrogen N availability in the soil is low and the supply with N often limits plant growth are dominated by ECM plant communities. ECM fungi can take up inorganic N sources very efficiently from soils [ 98 , 99 ], but their capability to utilize organic N sources, and to make these sources available for the host plant, is generally seen as an important factor in the N nutrition of ECM plant species [ 1 ].
Many ECM fungi can for example mobilize and utilize amino acids and amides, such as glutamine, glutamate and alanine, which can represent a significant N pool, particularly in acid-organic soils [ 1 ]. Some amino acids can be taken up intact, and can directly be incorporated into assimilation pathways and can thereby also represent a significant carbon pool for ECM fungi [ ].
By contrast, the contribution of AM fungi to total N uptake of plants is still under debate. However, there are numerous reports in which a significant transport of N by AM fungi to their host has been demonstrated. It becomes increasingly clear, that the mycorrhizal pathway can play a role in the N nutrition of AM plants, even if the percentage contribution to total N nutrition of the host plant can vary considerably [ 50 ].
Compared to ECM fungi, the capability of AM fungi to utilize organic N sources is considered to be relatively low, but some AM fungi are also able to use organic N sources. AM fungi can take up exogenously supplied amino acids [ 13 , , ] and are able to mobilize N from organic nutrient patches and to transfer these N sources to their host [ ]. It has been suggested that the intracellular level of glutamine is responsible for the repression under high supply conditions.
AM fungi assimilate N into Arg via the anabolic arm of the urea cycle and its key enzymes: carbamoyl phosphate synthase, argininosuccinate synthase, and argininosuccinate lyase carbamoyl phosphate synthase CPS, production of carbamoyl phosphate from CO2, ATP and NH3 ; argininosuccinate synthase ASS, synthesis of argininosuccinate from citrulline and aspartate ; and argininosuccinate lyase AL, conversion of L-argininosuccinate to Arg and fumarate.
For AM associations, it has been suggested that N is transferred in inorganic form across the mycorrhizal interface. Current models on N transport in the AM symbiosis propose the breakdown of Arg in the IRM via the catabolic arm of the urea cycle into inorganic N, which is subsequently transferred across the mycorrhizal interface to the host [ , ].
For ECM associations, it has traditionally been believed that amino acids are transferred across the mycorrhizal interface and that N transport from the fungus to the host is in organic form [ 1 ].
If organic N is transferred across the mycorrhizal interface, the carbon skeletons of amino acids would contribute to a significant re-flux of carbon from the fungus to the host.
The uptake of amino acids from the interface would also require the presence of efficient plant uptake systems for organic N from the mycorrhizal interface, which have not yet been identified. However, ECM fungi are also able to hydrolyze urea via urease [ ]. In ECM roots two fungal aquaporinsare highly expressed, that belong to the group of Fps-like aquaglyceroporins [ ]. The molecular mechanisms that are involved in the regulation of P and N transfer across the mycorrhizal interface are still unknown [ 50 ].
Models of nutrient transfer across the mycorrhizal interface generally involve an efflux of P and N from the fungal symplast through the fungal plasmamembrane into the interfacial apoplast and the active absorption across the plasmamembrane by the host plant Figure 5.
Transport processes in arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal interactions. The net loss of nutrientsfrom free living fungi is normally regarded as slow, and membrane transport processes are generally favouring fungal re-absorption [ 77 ].
Therefore it has been suggested, that in the interface, conditions might exist, that promote the efflux of nutrients from the fungus or reduce the level of competing fungal uptake systems. The following conditions could contribute to a stimulation of nutrient transport across the mycorrhizal interface:.
Development and maintenance of a concentration gradient :A concentration gradient across the mycorrhizal interface with high concentrations in the IRM and low concentrations in the interfacial apoplast and in cortical cells would maximize the efflux of nutrients through the fungal plasma membrane, and reduce fungal re-absorption.
High P concentrations for example within the hyphae of the Hartig net or in the IRM increase the P transfer to the host [ 83 , ] and reduce fungal re-absorption [ 75 , , ].
There are also indications that the differential expression of plant and fungal uptake transporters in the mycorrhizal interface plays a role in the development of a strong concentration gradient across the mycorrhizal interface.
The high expression of these transporters facilitates the uptake of resourcesby the plant and the development of a strong concentration gradient across the interface Figure 5. Plants express low affinity P i transporters that can also act as channels and stimulate P i efflux under low exogenous P i concentrations [ ]. However, whether fungal P i transporters in the interface may have similar capabilities is still unknown.
Carbon as trigger for nutrient transport: AM fungi are obligate biotrophs and also ECM fungi absorb carbon mainly from the mycorrhizal interface in symbiosis. The carbon from the host provides the required resources for an extension of the ERM, for active uptake or other energy consuming processes, and for the development of new infection units. The supply of carbon by the host has been shown to stimulate the P uptake and transfer in AM [ 83 , 94 , ] and ECM symbiosis [ 95 ] and it has been suggested that the P i efflux from the IRM could be directly linked to the glucose uptake by the mycorrhizal fungus [ ].
The P i efflux from the IRM of the AM fungus Gigaspora margarita can be stimulated by an external supply of glucose, and its subsequent phosphorylation is coupled to a breakdown of polyP [ ]. Also ECM fungi show an increased P i efflux after a supply with sucrose under pure culture conditions [ ]. There is currently no molecular evidence for a direct linkage between P i efflux and carbon supply, but it has been shown that the expression of MST2 a monosaccharide transporter of Glomus sp.
The carbon supply of the host also stimulates N uptake and transport in the AM symbiosis and triggers changes in fungal gene expression [ ]. An increase in the carbon availability stimulates the expression of several genes involved in N assimilationand Arg biosynthesis N assimilation: glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthase; Arg biosynthesis: carbamoyl-phosphate synthase glutamine chain, argininosuccinate synthase, argininosuccinate lyase.
AM and ECM fungi regulate the nutrient transport to the host by the accumulation or remobilization of polyP and it has been shown that the carbon supply of the host plant can trigger polyP hydrolysis [ 83 , 94 , 95 , ]. Effects on membrane permeability. The accumulation of particular ions e. Lyso-phosphatidylcholine LPC acts in AM roots asa lipophilic signal, that induces the expression of mycorrhiza-inducible P transporters and there are indications for an extracellular localization and production of LPC.
LPC leads to a rapid extracellular alkalinization of tomato cells in suspension-cultures [ ] and could have similar effects also on the fungal membrane potential at the mycorrhizal interface. AM and ECM fungi in symbiosis have been shown to express aquaporins [ , ].
Aquaporins could also stimulate the efflux of other nutrients, such as phosphate, through the fungal plasma membrane into the mycorrhizal interface [ ]. It has been hypothesized that mycorrhizal growth responses follow a mutualism — parasitism continuum [ ] and that the outcome of the symbiosis primarily depends on cost carbon to benefit nutrient gain ratios. When the nutrient availability in the soil is high, growth depressions in AM plants have been observed [e.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that negative growth responses in AM interactions could also be the result of a reduced P uptake via the plant pathway which is not compensated for by an increase in P uptake via the mycorrhizal pathway, leading to an overall reduction in total P uptake and P deficiency for the plant [ 52 ]. Similarly, it has been proposed that for ECM plants carbon is an excess rather than a costly resource and that the outcome of the symbiosis for the host is primarily dependent on the nutrient acquisition efficiency of the ECM fungus [ ].
Carbon to P exchange processes in the AM symbiosis are driven by biological market dynamics and both partners reciprocally reward beneficial partners with more resources [ 94 ]. AM fungi differ in their efficiency with which they suppress the plant nutrient uptake pathway [ 55 ]. AM fungi are completely dependent on their host plant for their carbon supply, and it is interesting to speculate that the suppression of the plant pathway could be more a fungal-driven than a host-motivated response.
A strong suppression of the plant pathway will shift the ratio between both uptake pathways towards the mycorrhizal pathway and will result in a higher mycorrhizal dependency of the host.
A high mycorrhizal dependency increases the carbon allocation to the root system [ ], and this will make more carbon available for the fungus, which in return has been shown to trigger P and N transport in the AM symbiosis [ 83 , 94 , , ]. This is also consistent with the observation that the N transport to the host was reduced when the fungus had access to an additional carbon source [ ], and the mycorrhizal dependency of the fungus was reduced.
This indicates that the fungus is more in control of the symbiosis than previously been suggested and that mycorrhizal fungi can gain an advantage in the symbiosis by adjusting their nutrient transfer to the host. The question arises, whether and how the host plant is able to control the symbiosis. Arbuscules in the AM symbiosis undergo in the host cell a cycle of growth, degradation, senescence and recurrent growth, and the typical life span of arbuscules is only 8. The life span of arbuscules has been shown to depend on their ability to deliver nutrients to the host and is regulated by the host plant demand.
Table 1 Observed responses of plants to the inoculation application of AMF on host species exposed to various abiotic stress treatments. Excessive land use may have a drastic impact on the overall biodiversity, which in turn may affect the ecosystem function as shown by several reports Smith and Read, ; Balliu et al.
A prominent role of such symbiotic relationship is to transfer nutrients, for example, organic carbon C , in the form of lipids and sugars Jiang et al. AMF colonization is widely believed to stimulate nutrient uptake in plants Table 1. It is evident that inoculation of AMF can enhance the concentration of various macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients significantly, which leads to increased photosynthate production and hence increased biomass accumulation Chen et al. AMF have the capability to boost the uptake of inorganic nutrients in almost all plants, specifically of phosphate Smith et al.
AMF are also very effective in helping plants to take up nutrients from the nutrient-deficient soils Kayama and Yamanaka, Apart from the macronutrients, AMF association has been reported to increase the phyto-availability of micronutrients like zinc and copper Smith and Read, AMF improve the surface absorbing capability of host roots Bisleski, Experimental trials on tomato plants inoculated with AMF have shown increased leaf area, and nitrogen, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus contents, reflecting enhanced plant growth Balliu et al.
AMF develop symbiosis with roots to obtain essential nutrients from the host plant and consequently provide mineral nutrients in return, for example, N, P, K, Ca, Zn, and S. Thus, AMF provide nutritional support to the plants even under inappropriate conditions inside the root cells. AMF produce fungal structures like arbuscules, which assist in exchange of inorganic minerals and the compounds of carbon and phosphorus, ultimately imparting a considerable vigor to host plants Li et al.
Therefore, they can significantly boost the phosphorus concentration in both root and shoot systems Al-Hmoud and Al-Momany, Under phosphorus-limited conditions, mycorrhizal association improves phosphorus supply to the infected roots of host plants Bucher, Increased photosynthetic activities and other leaf functions are directly related to improved growth frequency of AMF inoculation that is directly linked to the uptake of N, P, and carbon, which move towards roots and promote the development of tubers.
It has been observed that AMF maintain P and N uptake ultimately helping in plant development at higher and lower P levels under different irrigation regimes Liu et al. For example, mycorrhizal symbiosis positively increased the concentrations of N, P, and Fe in Pelargonium graveolens L.
Gomez-Bellot et al. It is believed that AMF improve the uptake of almost all essential nutrients and contrarily decrease the uptake of Na and Cl, leading to growth stimulation Evelin et al. The extra-radical mycelium ERM can effectively improve nutrient uptake, thereby improving plant growth and development Lehmann and Rillig, Nitrogen N , being a main source of soil nutrition, is a well-known mineral fertilizer, even in those areas where there are enough livestock and farm-yard manure FYM.
Many scientists have reported the role of AMF in uptake of soil nutrients, especially of N and P, which can effectively promote the growth of host plants Smith et al. In higher plants and some crops, N is a premier growth limiting factor. Several studies have explained that AMF have the ability to absorb and transfer N to the nearby plants or host plants Hodge and Storer, ; Battini et al. Zhang et al. Translocation of N into seeds is enhanced from heading to maturity.
AMF after establishing symbiosis produce extensive underground extra-radical mycelia ranging from the roots up to the surrounding rhizosphere, thereby helping in improving the uptake of nutrients specifically N Battini et al. Recently, it has been reported that native AMF treatments produce significant alterations in the N contents of crop plants Turrini et al.
It has been widely accepted that fungi have the ability to take substantial amount of N from dead and decomposed material that later increases their fitness to grow and stay alive.
Apart from this, large biomass and increased N requirements for AMF render them the main stakeholder of global N pool that is equivalent in scale to fine roots.
Thus, they play a pivotal role in the N cycle Hodge and Fitter, Increased N in AMF-colonized plants evidently results in higher chlorophyll contents, as chlorophyll molecules can effectively trap N De Andrade et al. Other evidences favoring the AMF-mediated improvement in plant N nutrition can also be seen in the literature Courty et al. For example, in olive plants, AMF were reported to improve growth, accumulation of micro-nutrients and macro-nutrients, and their allocation in the plantlets grown under increased levels of Mn Bati et al.
Improved growth and levels of protein, Fe, and Zn were found in mycorrhizal chickpea Pellegrino and Bedini, Moreover, two meta-analysis reports that appeared a few years ago showed the role of mycorrhizal symbiosis to various micro-nutrients in crops Lehmann et al. Asrar et al. Several studies conducted during the last few years have shown that AMF, such as Glomus mosseae and Rhizophagus irregularis exhibited improved heavy metal translocation in the shoot Zaefarian et al.
Micronutrients such as Zn and Cu being diffusion limited in soils are absorbed by plants with the help of mycorrhizal hyphae. Beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms not only can improve the nutrient status of crops, as described above, but also can enhance the quality of crops. For example, AMF-colonized strawberry exhibited increased levels of secondary metabolites resulting in improved antioxidant property Castellanos-Morales et al. AMF can enhance the dietary quality of crops by affecting and production of carotenoids and certain volatile compounds Hart et al.
Bona et al. In another study, Zeng et al. Mycorrhizal symbiosis induces enhanced accumulation of anthocyanins, chlorophyll, carotenoids, total soluble phenolics, tocopherols, and various mineral nutrients Baslam et al. AMF have been employed in a large-scale field production of maize Sabia et al. AMF can also enhance the biosynthesis of valuable phytochemicals in edible plants and make them fit for healthy food production chain Sbrana et al.
Rouphael et al. In addition, AMF can also play a critical role in improving the resistance of plants to stressful environments, as described below. Drought stress affects plant life in many ways; for example, shortage of water to roots reduces rate of transpiration as well as induces oxidative stress Impa et al. Drought stress imparts deleterious effects on plant growth by affecting enzyme activity, ion uptake, and nutrient assimilation Ahanger and Agarwal, ; Ahanger et al.
However, there is a strong evidence of drought stress alleviation by AMF in different crops such as wheat, barley, maize, soybean, strawberry, and onion Mena-Violante et al.
Plant tolerance to drought could be primarily due to a large volume of soil explored by roots and the extra-radical hyphae of the fungi Gianinazzi et al. Such a symbiotic association is believed to regulate a variety of physio-biochemical processes in plants such as increased osmotic adjustment Kubikova et al. Symbiotic relationship of various plants with AMF may ultimately improve root size and efficiency, leaf area index, and biomass under the instant conditions of drought Al-Karaki et al.
Moreover, AMF and their interaction with the host plant are helpful in supporting plants against severe environmental conditions Ruiz-Lozano, ; Table 1. The AMF symbiosis also results in enhanced gas exchange, leaf water relations, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate Morte et al. Recently, Li et al. It is widely known that the soil salinization is an increasing environmental problem posing a severe threat to global food security.
Salinity stress is known to suppress growth of plants by affecting the vegetative development and net assimilation rate resulting in reduced yield productivity Hasanuzzaman et al. It also promotes the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species Ahmad et al. Attempts are being made to explore potential means of achieving enhanced crop production under salt affected soils.
One such potential means is the judicious use of AMF for mitigating the salinity-induced adverse effects on plants Santander et al.
Several research studies have reported the efficiency of AMF to impart growth and yield enhancement in plants under salinity stress Talaat and Shawky, ; Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, ; Table 1. El-Nashar reported that AMF enhanced growth rate, leaf water potential, and water use efficiency of the Antirrhinum majus plants.
Recently, Ait-El-Mokhtar et al. AMF significantly alleviated the deleterious effects on photosynthesis under salinity stress Sheng et al. Mycorrhizal inoculation markedly improved photosynthetic rate, and other gas exchange traits, chlorophyll content, and water use efficiency in Ocimum basilicum L. AMF-inoculated Allium sativum plants showed improved growth traits including leaf area index, and fresh and dry biomass under saline conditions Borde et al. Recently, Wang et al.
Furthermore, plants possessing AMF show enhanced synthesis of jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and several important inorganic nutrients. In addition, Santander et al. AMF inoculation can effectively regulate the levels of key growth regulators. For example, Hameed et al. In addition, AMF-mediated growth promotion under salinity stress was shown to be due to alteration in the polyamine pool Kapoor et al. Furthermore, Aroca et al. AMF-colonized plants have the ability to decrease oxidative stress by suppressing lipid membrane peroxidation under salinity stress Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, ; Talaat and Shawky, Furthermore, inoculation of AMF was also observed to enhance the accumulation of various organic acids resulting in up-regulation of the osmoregulation process in plants grown under saline stress.
For example, Sheng et al. AMF are widely believed to support plant establishment in soils contaminated with heavy metals, because of their potential to strengthen defense system of the AMF mediated plants to promote growth and development. Heavy metals may accumulate in food crops, fruits, vegetables, and soils, causing various health hazards Liu et al. AMF association with wheat positively increased nutrient uptake under aluminum stress Aguilera et al.
Plants grown on soils enriched with Cd and Zn exhibit considerable suppression in shoot and root growth, leaf chlorosis, and even death Moghadam, There are many reports in the literature on uncovering the AMF-induced effects on the buildup of metals in plants Souza et al.
Heavy metals can be immobilized in the fungal hyphae of internal and external origin Ouziad et al. The strong effects of AMF on plant development and growth under severe stressful conditions are most often due to the ability of these fungi in increasing morphological and physiological processes that increase plant biomass and consequently uptake of important immovable nutrients like Cu, Zn, and P and thus reduced metal toxicity in the host plants Kanwal et al.
It is also believed that enhanced growth or chelation in the rhizospheric soil can cause metal dilution in plant tissues Kapoor et al. AMF reportedly bind Cd and Zn in the cell wall of mantle hyphae and cortical cells, thereby restricting their uptake and resulting in improved growth, yield, and nutrient status Andrade and Silveira, ; Garg and Chandel, Mycorrhizae can disturb the uptake of different metals into plants from the rhizosphere and their movement from the root zone to the aerial parts Dong et al.
AMF are believed to regulate the uptake and accumulation of some key inorganic nutrients. For example, enhanced uptake of Si has been reported in mycorrhiza-inoculated plants like Glycine max Yost and Fox, and Zea mays Clark and Zeto, Hammer et al. For example, in rice, AMF were very effective in lowering the levels of Cd in both the vacuoles and cell wall, which brought about Cd detoxification Li et al. Wang et al. As soil temperatures increase, plant community reactions may be dependent on AMF interactions for sustainable yield and production Bunn et al.
Heat stress significantly affects plant growth and development by imparting i loss of plant vigor and inhibition of seed germination, ii retarded growth rate, iii decreased biomass production, iv wilting and burning of leaves and reproductive organs, v abscission and senescence of leaves, vi damage as well as discoloration of fruit, vii reduction in yield and cell death Wahid et al. Maya and Matsubara have reported the association of AMF Glomus fasciculatum with plant growth and development leading to positive changes in growth under the conditions of high temperature Figure 2 ; Table 1.
AMF can increase plant tolerance to cold stress Birhane et al. Moreover, a majority of reports state that various plants inoculated with AMF at low temperature grow better than non-AMF-inoculated plants Zhu et al. AMF support plants in combating cold stress and eventually improve plant development Gamalero et al. Moreover, AMF also can retain moisture in the host plant Zhu et al. For example, during cold stress, AMF-inoculated plants showed an enhanced water conservation capacity as well as its use efficiency Zhu et al.
Symbiotic AMF relationship improves water and plant relationships and increases gas exchange potential and osmotic adjustment Zhu et al. AMF improve the synthesis of chlorophyll leading to a significant improvement in the concentrations of various metabolites in plants subjected to cold stress conditions Zhu et al. The role of AMF during cold stress has also been reported to alter protein content in tomato and other vegetables Abdel Latef and Chaoxing, b.
It is widely accepted that AMF could alleviate various stresses or combination of stresses that include, drought, salinity, temperature, nutrients, and heavy metals. For example, exposure of plants to a combination of drought and salinity causes an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species, which can be highly injurious to plants Bauddh and Singh, Very rare research reports are available in the literature demonstrating the role of AMF in mitigation of combined effects of two or more stresses.
Similarities among the tolerance mechanisms may occur in response to AMF-mediated combined stress adaptations. It is proposed that AMF-mediated alterations in phytohormone profile, mineral uptake and assimilation, accumulation of compatible osmolytes and secondary metabolites, and up-regulation of antioxidant system can be the common mechanisms induced during different stresses.
However, specific mechanisms like compartmentation and sequestration of toxic ions, production of phytochelatins, and protein expression can be specific and exhibit a significant change with stress type and the AMF species involved. Changes in root characteristics like hydraulic conductivities can improve the osmotic stress tolerance to considerable levels Evelin et al. The said characteristics of AMF may elevate nutraceutical quality of crops and could be of considerable agronomic importance for production and management of different potential crops.
However, extensive studies are required to unravel the role of AMF in counteracting the effects of combined stresses. A few research reports have already documented the beneficial role of AMF in improving plant growth under stressful environments.
Therefore, in this review, the existing information related to the role of AMF has been combined in a coherent way for understanding of AMF symbiotic relationship with a variety of plants under stress environments.
Previously, the AMF have been mainly discussed as beneficial entities for nutrient uptake from soil; however, recently, it has been clearly depicted that plants inoculated with AMF can effectively combat various environmental cues, like salinity, drought, nutrient stress, alkali stress, cold stress, and extreme temperatures, and thus help increase per hectare yield of a large number of crops and vegetables.
Encouragement of AMF usage is of immense importance for modern global agricultural systems for their consistent sustainability. Undoubtedly, exploitation of AMF for agricultural improvement can significantly reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers and other chemicals, thereby promoting the bio-healthy agriculture. AMF-mediated growth and productivity enhancement in crop plants can be beneficial to overcome the consumption requirement of increasing population across the globe.
In addition, environment-friendly technologies shall be highly encouraged due to their widespread use. The primary focus of future research should be on the identification of genes and gene products controlling the AMF mediated growth and development regulation under stressful cues.
Identification of both host as well as AMF specific protein factors regulating symbiotic association and the major cellular and metabolic pathways under different environmental stresses can be hot areas for future research in this field. Understanding the AMF induced modulations in the tolerance mechanisms and the crosstalk triggered to regulate plant performance can help improve crop productivity.
Taken together, AMF must be explored at all levels to further investigate their role in nature as a bio-fertilizer for sustainable agricultural production. MA helped considerably in writing of this manuscript and made final corrections. Abdel Latef, A.
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Mycorrhizae are symbiotic relationships that form between fungi and plants. The fungi colonize the root system of a host plant, providing increased water and nutrient absorption capabilities while the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis. Mycorrhizae also offer the host plant increased protection against certain pathogens. Mycorrhizal associations are seen in the fossil record and are believed to be one of the contributing factors that allowed early land plants, including Aglaophyton major one of the first land plants , to conquer the land.
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